Ancient Religions Essay -- essays research papers fc

Religions of the Ancient World      Religions of the old world were in a condition of steady transition. Karl Jaspers expresses that between the eighth and fourth hundreds of years B.C.E, â€Å"great changes occurred in all the socialized world† (qtd. in Basham 36), and the extraordinary scholars of these occasions started thinking autonomously and exclusively. In addition, â€Å"after these extraordinary scholars the world was never the equivalent again† (qtd. in Basham 36-37). These occasions were named the â€Å"axial period† (qtd. in Basham 37). The hub religions that rose during this period were significant and enduring. Actually, the religions talked about in this paperâ€Judaism, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Christianityâ€are thought about the most rehearsed religions to do this day. In spite of the fact that these religions have changed after some time, their fundamental structure stays flawless.      Ancient Hebrew Religion      Richard Hooker expresses that there are four fundamental periods in the Hebrew Religion, they are: the Pre-Mosaic Stage (1950 - 1300 B.C.E.), the National Monolatry and Monotheism (1300-1000 B.C.E.), the Prophetic Revolution (800-600 B.C.E.), and the Post-Exile Revolution (538 B.C.E., and past) (Hooker n. pag.). Little is thought about the Pre-Mosaic stage, however a few researchers have shaped four principle ends drawn from the content of Genesis. The principal end expresses that the start of Hebrew religion was polytheistic, including a few divine beings. This end is framed from the â€Å"plural type of the name of God, Elohim as opposed to El† (Hooker n. pag.). The subsequent ends is that early â€Å"Hebrew religion was animistic...and as a result...had various practices that fall into the classification of magic† (Hooker n. pag.).      In the Monolatry time frame, the most huge occasion was the departure from Egypt. The extraordinary relocation drove by Moses bound together the Hebrew individuals. They started to allude to themselves as â€Å"bene yisrael† or â€Å"children of Israelâ€Å". Additionally right now, Moses trained the Israelites to venerate one God, Yahweh, and to keep his laws (Torah). The Israelites admired Yahweh as their God and boss ruler. Towards the finish of this period the Kingdom of Israel was in a condition of strife. They yearned for a â€Å"unified state under a solitary monarch† (Hooker n. pag.) and they continued onward in view of this idea.  â â &nbsp... ...ite their troubles, these religions just reinforced all through time. Works Cited Basham, A.L. The Origins and Developments of Classical Hinduism. Ed. Kenneth G. Zysk. Boston: Beacon, 1989. Brummett, Palmira, et all. Civic establishments Past and Present. Ed. Priscilla McGeehon Longman, 2000.â â â â â â â â â â â â â â â â â â â â â â â â â Dumoulin, Heinrich. Zen Enlightenment: Origins and Meaning. Trans.      Maraldo, John C. New York: Weatherhill 1979. Finegan, Jack. The Archeology of World Religions. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press 1952. Hooker, Richard. The Hebrews. 1996: n. pag. On the web. Web. 10 Oct. 2000. Accessible http://www.edu:8080/~dee/HEBREWS/RELIGION.HTM. Kashyap, J. et al. The Path of the Buddha. Ed. Morgan, Kenneth W. New York: The Ronald Press Co., 1956. Scheck, Frank Reainer, Manfred Gã ¶rgens. Buddhism: A Historical Overview. Baron's: 1999. From Jesus to Christ: the First Christians. PBS and WGBH/FRONTLINE 1998: n. pag. On the web. Web. 2 Nov. 2000. Accessible http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/bleeding edge/appears/religion/.

Erickson’s Psychosocial Theory Essay

Erick Erickson is a notable scholar. He was an understudy of Freud and was incredibly affected by his work. Erikson’s hypothesis is known as probably the best hypothesis of character in brain research. While he acknowledged Freud’s hypothesis of psychosexual turn of events, he felt that it was fragmented. It didn't perceive social and social impacts It didn't perceive improvement changes past youthfulness It didn't put enough accentuation on sense of self turn of events This hypothesis concentrated fundamentally on improvement of hypochondriac and maladaptive conduct and didn't give enough thought to sound turn of events. Erikson accepted that character created in a progression of eight phases. He contends that improvement happens over an entire life expectancy. He built up his hypothesis dependent on the premise that subjective and social advancement happens simultaneously. Erickson accepted that during advancement individuals experience a progression of psychosocial emergencies. These emergencies recognize a contention between two character clashes. Erickson created nitty gritty meanings of these psychosocial stages and the emergencies related with every one. Each stage expands on the former one and readies the person for the following (Martin and Fabes 2009). The first stage is trust versus doubt (Main Question: â€Å"Is the world a reliable spot?). This stage centers around babies needs being met by guardians. Newborn children rely upon their w atchmen for food and solace. Their comprehension of society originates from their collaborations with their gatekeeper. On the off chance that a kid is presented to reliable positive connections, and trustworthy consideration, the newborn child will fabricate trust. On the off chance that the guardians neglect to give and meet the essential needs the kid will feel a feeling of question. Stage 2 is Autonomy versus Disgrace and Doubt (Toddlers 2 to 3 years). Primary Question: â€Å"Can I do things myself or must I generally depend on others?† As youngsters oversee their body and engine abilities they start to guarantee assets and build up a feeling of independency. In any case, guardians despite everything give a key job ofâ security from which the kid can wander out to attest their will. When parents’ are quiet and empowering it advances self-governance. Else, they are probably going to force the kid with a feeling of uncertainty which diminishes their readiness to attempt new undertakings. Stage 3 is Initiative versus Blame (Preschool, 3 to 6 years).Main Question: â€Å"Am I great or am I bad?† At this stage, kids need to start and complete their own activities for a reason. They are figuring out how well they can get things done. They are additionally discovering that, since they can get things done, doesn't mean it is a smart thought to do it. Blame is another feeling right now. Kids are starting to discover that a few practices may cause them to feel despondent about themselves. They are starting to create feeling of good and bad. Stage 4 is Industry versus Inadequacy (6-12). Principle Question: Can I make it in this world? At this stage youngsters start to build up a feeling of pride in their accomplishments. This is a significant time for educators since they assume an expanded job in the child’s advancement. At the point when youngsters are supported and strengthened for their drive, they start to feel productive and their certainty is expanded. In the event that this activity isn't empowered or constrained by guardians or instructor, at that point the youngster will feel sub-par and uncertainty their capacities. Stage 5 is Identity versus Disarray (early high schooler). Fundamental Question: Who am I? What can I? During this phase there is a change from adolescence to adulthood, which is significant. This is the point at which the kid turns out to be progressively free, and starts to take a gander at the future as far as vocation, connections, families, lodging, and so on. They investigate and start to frame their own character dependent on the result of their encounters. The feeling of what their identity is can be prevented, which creates turmoil about themselves and their place on the planet. Stage 6 is Intimacy versus Disengagement. Primary Question: Can I love? During this stage it is the time of early adulthood when individuals are investigating their own connections. Erikson trusted it was significant for individuals to grow close and serious relationships with others. The individuals who are fruitful at this stage will create secure connections. Erikson accepted that a solid feeling of individual character was critical to creating close connections. Stage 7 is Generativity versus Stagnation (center adulthood). Principle question: Can I make an incredible most? During set up this stage is when grown-ups vocations. They settle down inside a relationship and start to build up their very own group. There is a feeling of giving back toâ society through bringing up kids, working, and being engaged with network exercises and associations. At the point when grown-ups neglect to accomplish these targets, they need self-esteem and feel inefficient. Stage 8 is Ego Integrity versus Sadness. Fundamental inquiry: Am I content with the way that I have carried on with my life? This is the last phase of advancement wherein grown-ups become more established and become seniors. They will in general stoppage as a rule. During this time they consider their achievements and can create trustworthiness about our accomplishments. This is the point at which it is chosen how beneficial one has been and if life objectives have been practiced (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erikson%27s_stages_of_psychosocial_development). Study: Erickson was one of the principal therapists to get mindful of the impact of culture on conduct. His hypothesis concentrated on three key focuses: Body Brain Culture Erickson recognized social contrasts and contributed fundamentally to the investigation of puberty and how they shaped their personalities. He felt that we should take a gander at life completely. He accepted that advancement extended through adulthood and that there were emergencies that grown-ups experienced. His hypothesis clashes Freud’s in the way that his accentuation was on the job of the conscience instead of the id. This makes Erickson’s hypothesis more decidedly situated than Freud. Erickson’s hypothesis is designed for a positive result. Notwithstanding, numerous scholars questioned Erickson’s scholastic uprightness. There is likewise almost no exploration that has been led on youth and grown-up psychosocial emergencies. It has been noticed that a significant number of Erickson’s hypothetical recommendations are hard to test. Some were even unimaginable (Martin and Fabes, 2009). It has additionally been contended that Erickson’s hypothesis is more material to young men as opposed to young ladies. â€Å"There is banter with respect to whether individuals possibly look for character during the immature years or on the off chance that one phase needs to occur before different stages can be completed† (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erikson%27s_stages_of_psychosocial_development). Reflection: Out of all scholars that I have considered, Erickson is by a long shot my top choice. In the wake of investigating Erickson’s phases of improvement, I concur that his hypothesis describes the progressions in one’s life. I do feel that we face aâ crises/struggle in each stage. Despite the fact that I can't recall my beginning times of advancement, I have encountered them with my kids and as an instructor I have seen these emergencies. As of now I have a youngster in each phase of advancement. I realize my baby relies upon me and I feel that on the off chance that I don't address his issues he will build up a feeling of doubt. I additionally have a youngster that stresses over fitting in and continually stresses over associations with companions. I feel that I am at present in the center adulthood stage. I have settled down. I have a family, and I have begun a profession. Erickson phases of advancement are particularly valuable for instructors. Educators as do guardians, assume a key job in aiding or blocking kids as a part of their character advancement. Erickson saw advancement as an impression of associations with guardians and family inside the more extensive setting of society (Brewer, 2006 p.21). Educators that follow Erickson’s conviction will create programs that permit youngsters the chance to fabricate trust and bonds. Young kids are managing the requests of learning new abilities, fitting in with their cohorts and achieving objectives (Morrison, 2007p. 125). I accept that Erickson’s phases of improvement will be gainful in helping educators with watching and reacting to their understudies needs. Assets: Morrison, G. (2007). Youth instruction today (tenth ed.). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Merrill/Prentice Hall. Brewer, J. (2006). Prologue to Early Childhood Education: Preschool Through Primary Grades (sixth ed.). Boston, New York: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon, Martin, C., and Fabes, R. (2009). Finding kid improvement (second ed.). Boston, NewYork: Houghton Mifflin Company. http://info.psu.edu.sa/psu/maths/Erikson%27s%20Theory%20of%20Psychosocial%20Development%20%282%29.pdf http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erikson%27s_stages_of_psychosocial_development

Controlling Your Alcohol Consumption

Controlling Your Alcohol Consumption Addiction Alcohol Use Print How to Control Alcohol Intake Rather Than Quit Cold Turkey By Elizabeth Hartney, BSc., MSc., MA, PhD Elizabeth Hartney, BSc, MSc, MA, PhD is a psychologist, professor, and Director of the Centre for Health Leadership and Research at Royal Roads University, Canada. Learn about our editorial policy Elizabeth Hartney, BSc., MSc., MA, PhD Updated on October 04, 2019 Michael Heffernan / Getty Images More in Addiction Alcohol Use Binge Drinking Withdrawal and Relapse Children of Alcoholics Drunk Driving Addictive Behaviors Drug Use Nicotine Use Coping and Recovery When many people are asked about their drinking habits, they dismiss concerns as irrational. You might say that you drink just as much as everyone else does, that you can stop drinking whenever you want, and that your drinking is not excessive. But over time you may start to doubt yourself and question if your drinking has gotten out of control.  If it has hit you that you are drinking too much and that cutting down or quitting is not as easy as you thought it would be, you may be wondering whether you can get your alcohol consumption under control. Many people, including some medical professionals, believe that abstinence is the only way. But medical research has shown that the cold-turkey approach may not be the best way for everyone. How to Control Alcohol Consumption The different approaches work for different people and various addiction types. Some people may be able to quit and never have a drop of alcohol for the rest of their lives. They may be the type where even a glass of wine every now and again could trigger them to return to drinking heavily. If you recognize yourself as that kind of drinker, its important to know yourself and your weaknesses. But for others, drinking in moderation can be effective at curbing addictive behaviors to alcohol.?? Research tells us that controlled drinking is not only possible, but it is quite common among people who used to drink heavily. Many people cut down on their alcohol intake without medical or therapeutic help, although it is advisable to discuss your alcohol intake with your family doctor before trying to change it. It can be dangerous to quit without adequate medical support, due to any withdrawal or mental health symptoms that may occur as you transition into recovery.?? If you feel that avoiding alcohol completely is not for you, you do have other options.?? Some people can get control over their drinking and drink safer levels of alcohol without having to quit entirely. 9 Tips for Cutting Back on Drinking What to Do If You Wish to Cut Back on Excessive Drinking If you plan to attempt to control your drinking, there are several steps you should take to assist you in this process. Talk to your family doctor about whether a moderation or abstinence-based approach is right for you.??Keep track of how much you are drinking with a journal.Figure out your daily blood alcohol concentration (BAC).Set your daily and weekly alcohol limits and keep yourself accountable.Change the way you drink; have one or two drinks socially, not several rounds.Develop alternatives to drinking that work for you, such as effective self-care with exercise and hobbies.Develop more effective coping and stress management skills, like meditation or therapy. There is a lot on this list, and you might benefit from the help of a counselor in working through it. Some treatment programs will accept clients with goals of moderation, while others will only provide treatment to people who intend to become abstinent. If you believe moderation is the right goal for you, you owe it to yourself to find a program that will support you in your new lifestyle.?? Talk to your doctor to get a referral to a treatment plan that will work for you. How Alcohol and Drug Treatment Programs Can Be Effective

Should You Take Kaplans SAT Classroom Prep Course

Kaplan has long been a leader in the test preparation industry, and the companys online delivery system makes courses convenient and accessible. In the spring of 2012, I was able to eavesdrop on and interview a high school junior who was taking Kaplans SAT Classroom course. The review below is based on both my own and the students impressions of the course. What You Get for Your Money At $749, Kaplans SAT Classroom  package isnt cheap. However, students do get quite a bit for the investment (note that some of the details have changed slightly since 2012--Kaplan is constantly updating and evolving their products): An orientation session to get enrolled students logged into the system and to introduce them to the software, instructor, and teaching assistants6 live, online 3-hour classroom sessions. These sessions include live streaming video of your instructor, an online whiteboard for problem solving, a chat area supported by the teaching assistants, and frequent student polling.8 full-length practice tests with score analysisTimed practice exams with detailed review and explanation of answersAccess to The SAT Channel that includes live streaming videos and interactive prep with Kaplans instructors. Kaplan notes that they offer more hours of live instruction than any major prep provider.Kaplans Higher Score Guarantee. Kaplans guarantee is two-fold. If your SAT scores do not go up, you can get your money back. If your scores dont go up as much as you had hoped, you can repeat the course for free. The Class Schedule The student I observed took SAT Classroom over three weeks from February 14th to March 8th. The class met Tuesday and Thursday from 6:30 p.m. to 9:30 p.m., and Sundays from 3:30 p.m. to 6:30 p.m. (a bit longer for the proctored exams). Thats a total of 11 class meetings -- the orientation session, the six three-hour classes, and the four proctored exams. Kaplan has a lot of options that work with different student schedules. You can choose from classes that meet one, two, three or four times a week. Some options are during weekdays only while others are just on the weekends. Kaplan times the classes to end right before an SAT test date. Note that the class does have homework, so the more compressed class schedules can be very demanding on a students time (before each classroom session, students must take quizzes on what they have learned and watch videos on what they will cover in the next class). The class I observed looked like this (again, the exact class content has changed since 2012, especially with the new SAT, but this overview should give a good sense of what a course might look like): Session 1: Orientation. Meet your teacher, teaching assistants, and learn about the tools.Session 2: Proctored full-length SAT used to establish your strengths and weaknessesSession 3: Classroom session. Sample problems and an introduction to Kaplan strategies.Session 4: Classroom session. Critical Reading.Session 5: Proctored full-length SAT.Session 6: Classroom session. Math.Session 7: Classroom session. Writing.Session 8: Proctored full-length SAT.Session 9: Classroom session. Math.Session 10: Proctored full-length SATSession 11: Classroom session. Vocabulary; Final test-taking tips. Student Feedback After the course was over, the student I observed wrote up some feedback on his experience with SAT Complete Prep. Here are the highlights: Pros Great techniquesSmart Track is a great place to check performance and do homeworkTeacher is very likable and you feel as though she really does care about how you do (Ill second this -- Katie was an excellent and personable online instructor)The classroom is well designedPractice tests are great and help to show you that these techniques are usefulWith the proctoring, you feel as though you are truly taking the SATCourse book is well thought out and good to look back on to review strategies Cons Homework does take a minimum of 3 hours which can be a problem with other homework from schoolSmart Track is great but navigation takes a little getting used toSome classes you only get about 10 sample problems done within three hours The student noted that he would recommend the course to a friend. Final Thoughts and Recommendations I was more impressed with this course than I thought I would be. As a professor who likes a physical classroom and interacting with my students face-to-face, Ive always been resistant to online learning. Seeing the class in action, however, made me reconsider that position. Since the class had a teacher and two TAs, multiple students could be getting individualized help simultaneously -- something that cant happen very easily in a physical classroom. Also, Katie was an engaging and interactive instructor, and the video/chat/whiteboard classroom space was pleasingly effective. Im also someone who is skeptical about the need for spending hundreds of dollars on test prep, and I still believe it is not necessary. You can spend $20 on a book and teach yourself quite effectively, including Kaplans test-taking strategies. That said, the $749 price tag isnt bad for the number of instructional hours and the level of personalized feedback youll receive. So if the price doesnt create hardship for you, the course provides excellent instruction and feedback. Perhaps more important, it provides a concrete structure and study plan. Many students arent disciplined enough to put in a sustained and focused effort when they go the self-taught route. As with any class, there were moments that dragged as the instructor and TAs helped students who were struggling with a particular concept. The students who arent struggling end up waiting around at these moments. Of course, the only way to avoid this issue is to get individual tutoring, and then youll see the price tag go way up. The student I observed saw his scores in the practice tests go up 230 points from the beginning of the course to the end. His confidence and test-taking skills certainly improved. When he retook the actual SAT at the end of the course, however, the improvement wasnt as remarkable: a 60 point gain (still much better than the 30 point gain that some studies show as the average for SAT test prep courses). Overall, I feel SAT Classroom is an excellent product. Im not thrilled that the college admissions process tends to place so much weight on a single exam that courses like this are necessary, but the reality is what it is, and this course can truly help students earn the scores that will help them get into a selective college.

Hiv And Its Effects On Nigeria, Lower Respiratory...

As of 2013, the CDC listed that the top 3 causes of mortality in Nigeria are malaria, lower respiratory infections, and HIV (CDC, 2013). HIV is the third leading cause of deaths in Nigeria and account for 9% of all deaths (CDC, 2013). HIV is the virus that causes AIDS, or acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. It can be contracted through the exchange of bodily fluids with another infected individual. In Nigeria, the spread of HIV occurs through high prostitution rates, unsafe sexual practices, blood transfusions, and through mother-to-child transmission. The second cause of mortality in Nigeria are lower respiratory infections. Lower respiratory infections (LRIs) are commonly caused by viral infections. The most common lower respiratory infections are bronchitis, pneumonia, and the chronic cough. In Nigeria, the contraction of LRIs can occur due to a poor standard of living including a lack of basic household amenities such as proper ventilation and running water. LRIs can als o occur when the immune system is weakened such as those living with HIV/AIDS. The number one leading cause of death in Nigeria is malaria. In 2010, malaria was more prevalent in Nigeria than any other country in the world (CDC, 2015). Malaria is a parasitic infection spread through bites from the Anopheles mosquito. This mosquito is most commonly found in warm climates, such as Sub-Saharan Africa, where the parasite it carries can thrive. When this infected mosquito bites an individual, itsShow MoreRelatedBackground Guide Of World Health Organization7133 Words   |  29 PagesSeniors Model United Nation History of committee Discussions on the creation of a UN global health organization began in 1945 at the same time diplomats met to establish the UN Charter. The World Health Organization’s constitution came into effect three years later on 7 April 1948, a day which is now celebrated annually as World Health Day. Fifty-three of the fifty-five original WHO member states met in 1948 and outlined priority areas including malaria, women and children’s health, tuberculosisRead MoreCommunity Profile Essay5395 Words   |  22 Pagesepidemiology of sexually transmitted diseases over all age groups within the region, a comparison will be made against the number of cases of each disease against the national average. Further examination into other factors linked with sexually transmitted infections and what services are available within Stockton-on-Tees. An individuals health and well-being can be influenced across all age groups by a range of factors both within and outside of their control. Dahlgren and Whitehead [1991] created the Policy

Mining in Antarctica Free Essays

Antarctica is a continent which is rich in minerals but due to the Antarctic treaty mining has been banned from this area. I strongly agree that people should not mine this area for many reasons. They include, breakdown of peace, destruction of the environment, no major gain for the world, it would encourage disputes between the countries who have claimed a piece of Antarctica and it is against the laws of the treaty. We will write a custom essay sample on Mining in Antarctica or any similar topic only for you Order Now Firstly, Antarctica is the one and only continent in the world which has never experienced war.This is due to the Antarctic treaty which encourages peaceful scientific co-operation between the various countries which have claimed Antarctica. It encourages scientific knowledge rather than any financial gain. I am convinced that war is often caused by greed and that if minerals were mined and wealth was accumulated via these minerals, the peace would end as the various countries fought over the money and minerals. Secondly, Antarctica should not be mined because of the damage mining may cause to the clean, unpolluted, undamaged and crisp air.This is one place on Earth where humans have not taken advantage of nature and the environment. This area does not deserve to be mistreated and destroyed. If Antarctica was mined the machinery and equipment would severely affect the ozone layer resulting in similar damage to this continent that the rest of the world is experiencing. Thirdly, there is no proof that any of the minerals present in Antarctica are different to the minerals that can be found in the rest of the world.Seeing that there is no real gain to the world in mining the same minerals that can be found elsewhere, there is no point in damaging this environment or creating potential animosity between the countries which have claims. Additionally, Antarctica should not be mined as mining this area would encourage disputes between countries which have claimed parts of the continent. Mining will involve huge financial commitments, monetary gain or loss. If masses of minerals are established disputes between countries will occur as nations will be unsure who owns the minerals.The continent has remained peaceful so far because all the countries co-operated and worked towards scientific knowledge rather than financial gain. It is a lot easier to remain level headed and co-operative if there is no money at stake. Finally, Antarctica should not be mined as it is against the Antarctic treaty. So much thought, effort and planning went into the making of this treaty in order to ensure that Antarctica was protected from the destruction that the rest of the planet has experienced.The Antarctic treaty has been so successful in controlling the types of positive research, co-operation and peace in this area that is would a tragedy to defy the agreement for the sake of minerals. In conclusion, the reasons against mining as stated above are overwhelmingly strong. The benefits to the world are seemingly few and therefore Antarctica should definitely not be mined. Antarctica has been such a positive continent and it would be such a shame to introduce negative influences to this environment. How to cite Mining in Antarctica, Papers

Winter Sports free essay sample

The Individual competition is a classical style biathlon race covering 20 km for men and 15 km for women, with 4 shooting lanes. Biathletes start at intervals of either 30 seconds or one minute with each competitor choosing his (her) own shooting lane. The first and third shooting stages are taken from the prone position, while the second and fourth are fired standing. Biathletes are penalized one minute for each missed target. The Sprint is an abbreviated version of the Individual competition and one in which speed is a key factor. Men race 10 km, and women 7. km, each with two shooting rounds one prone and one standing. For every missed target, a competitor must complete a 150-meter penalty loop. In the Pursuit competition, athletes start in a staggered fashion depending on their time in the sprint race. Men ski 12. 5 km and women 10 km. Each covers four shooting stages—the first two are taken prone and the second two from a standing position. We will write a custom essay sample on Winter Sports or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page As with the Sprint competition, athletes ski a 150-meter penalty loop for each miss. The Mass Start competition is one of the newest biathlon formats. It covers a distance of 15 km for men and 12. km for women, with four shooting stages, the first two prone and second two standing. In each race, the 30 highest ranked athletes start together simultaneously and take their place at the first shooting stage depending on their starting number. Athletes line up at the remaining shooting stages depending on the order in which they arrived at the firing line. A 150-meter penalty loop is added for each miss. The Relay consists of four-person national teams covering distances of 7. 5 km for men and 6 km for women. Each leg of the race includes two shooting stages, one prone and one standing. As opposed to the individual disciplines, biathletes in the relay have 8 rounds of ammunition for each firing range – five stored in the magazine and three extra rounds that can be loaded by hand, if necessary. Once all 8 rounds have been fired, the athlete must ski a 150-meter penalty loop for each missed target. Sports Equipment * Any form of ski techniques is permitted in the biathlon. However, only skis and ski poles may be used. * Ski boots, providing support and controlling motion. * Ski poles made of composite materials such as carbon-fibre. Their length cannot exceed the height of the athlete using them. The biathlon rifle is a 5. 6 mm calibre weapon that is carried on the athlete’s back in a special harness with the barrel pointed up. * A one-piece special ski suit helps maintain a constant body temperature and minimizes wind resistance. * Skis cannot be shorter than 4 cm less than an athlete’s height. To increase glide, various special waxes are applied to the skis. 2. 2 Skeleton as it is Skeleton is the discipline where competitors aim to drive a one-person sled in a prone, head-first position down an ice track in the fastest time. Olympic skeleton events consist of four runs timed electronically to 0. 01 seconds. The four runs are contested over two days and the final standings are determined by the aggregate time of the four runs. If athletes complete the competition in a tie, they receive the same award. Skeleton consists of two events in the Olympic program — individual men and individual women. Equipment * The sled is made of two runners. The frame must be constructed of steel. The same sled must be used in all rounds of the competition. It must weigh no more than 43kg for men and 35kg for women. * Gloves are made of leather and are worn for protection. * Handles are used for the start push and during the race. They must be covered with soft material. All competitors must wear helmets, which are hard plastic and equipped with a chin guard and visor. The racing suit is a tight-fitting bodysuit made of elastic fabric that may have padding sewn into the elbows. * Shoes are made of synthetic material and have spikes on the soles for traction during the push start.   3. Curling as it is Curling is a sport game played between two teams composed of four players each. The game is played on ice, and members of both teams deliver a 19. 96 kg stone towards a circular target area, cal led the house alternating with an opponent. The objective is to get the stone closer to the Center of the circles than any stone of the opposition. One game consists of ten â€Å"ends†. During each end, each team steers eight stones — two stones per person, alternating with the opponent. Team members deliver the stones in a set order presented to officials before the game. The first player is known as the lead. He/she is followed by the second, then the third (also known as the vice-skip) and finally the skip, or team leader. After all 16 stones have been delivered the score is determined. Only one team can score per end. A team scores one point for each of its own stones located in or touching the house that is closer to the center of the house than any of the oppositions stones. The team with the most points after 10 ends is the winner. If the score is tied after the 10th end, an â€Å"extra-end† period is added. Extra ends are played until one side wins. There are two medal events in curling: men’s and women’s team competition. Sports Equipment * A broom is used to sweep the ice surface in front of the stone. Sweeping creates a film of water between the stone and the ice, which reduces friction, thereby reducing the stones deceleration and straightening its trajectory or â€Å"curl†. Curling brooms can have fabric, hog hair, or horsehair heads. There are also corn/straw brooms, although they are used rarely nowadays. * Special curling shoes have different soles. One has an extremely slippery sole made from Teflon, plastic or steel and is used on the sliding foot. The other is made from rubber and provides much-needed traction on the ice. * A curling stone is traditionally made in Scotland of rare, dense granite. Each stone weighs 19. 96 kg, is polished and is circular in shape. * Each playing surface is 45. 72 m long and not more than 5 m wide, with a target — or house — at either end. Ice Hockey as it it Ice hockey is played on a large flat area of ice, using a three inch (76. 2 mm) diameter vulcanized rubber disc called a puck. This puck is likely to be frozen for high-level matches to decrease the amount of bouncing and friction on the ice surface. The game is contested between two teams of skaters. A team must have no more than six players on the ice while the game is in progress. As a rule, these players are: one goalkeeper, two defensemen, three forwards (two wings and one centre). There can be fewer players on the ice as a result of penalties incurred. Also, a goalkeeper can be replaced by a skater during a penalty or at any other time of the game. A regular ice hockey game consists of three periods of 20-minutes each, with a 15-minute intermission after the first and second period. There are Olympic competitions for men and women. Equipment * Equipment includes: a helmet, shoulder pads, elbow pads, mouth guard, protective gloves, heavily padded shorts, athletic cup/jock strap, shin pads and a neck protector. * Goalkeepers’ equipment includes: a helmet, catcher and blocker gloves, neck guard, chest protector, athletic cup/jock strap, heavily padded shorts and leg pads. The puck is made of vulcanized rubber, must be approved by the International Ice Hockey Federation (IHF) and must be primarily black in color. * Sticks are made of wood or other material, such as aluminium or plastic. Luge as it is Luge is considered as one of the most dangerous Olympic winter sports. Luge involves sliding at high speeds on single- or two-person sleds. The run takes place on a specially built track. The athlete starts in a seating position and after pushing off lies supine and feet-first. The sled is steered by changing the luger’s center of gravity. The winner of the competition is the rider with the fastest time. During a run, the sled can reach speeds of over 140 km/h. There are three classes of Olympic competition: singles men, singles women and doubles. Men and women compete on the same track, but women’s and doubles’ starting line is further down the course than men’s. In male and female singles, athletes take four runs down the track. The four times are added, and the fastest total time determines the winner. The competition takes two days to complete (two runs per day). Doubles luge is a one-day competition in which pairs of athletes take two runs down the track. The fastest total time determines the winner. There is no written rule that says a team must comprise members of the same sex, but men traditionally ride together. Three sets of medals are awarded for each event. Sports Equipment * Lugers wear specially designed race suits to reduce wind resistance. Luge gloves are spiked at the fingertips to assist riders as they accelerate at the start. * Riders wear helmets with clear or tinted visors that extend under the chin to reduce wind resistance. * Riders wear special shoes that typically have firm, smooth outer soles. 6. 1 Figure Skating as it is Figure skating in the Olympic Games includes both mens and womens individual events, pairs mixed, and ice dancing mixed. At the present time, four sets of medals are contested in the Olympic figure skating program. Individual mens and womens figure skating comprises a short program that includes seven compulsory moves, and a free skate program. A well-balanced free program should include jumps, spins, and steps. Likewise, pairs mixed skaters first perform a short program (7 moves) and then a free skate program. Compulsory moves include lifts, spirals, throws and synchronized jumps. One of the most significant criteria in the judging of programs is the degree to which a pairs movements mirror one another. Ice Dancing is the only discipline that allows the use of music with vocals. Dancers much adhere closely to the rhythm of the music and express the character of the music with appropriate emotion and feeling. Until the 2010-2011 season, ice dancing comprised three performances: A compulsory dance (in which the performance closely follows a prescribed set of steps set to a piece of music with a particular character and musical rhythm); An original dance, carried out in keeping with guidelines provided by the International Skating Union; And a free skate dance, the theme and music of which is left to the skaters choice, although the choreography of the dances should include a specific set of elements. At present, ice dancing competitions, like those of other forms of figure skating, consist of two programs. The short program combines a compulsory dance—consisting of one or two parts—and certain prescribed elements. The theme and rhythm of the musical accompaniment is determined each season by the ISU, while the length of this dance—currently 2 minutes and 50 seconds—is similar to requirements of other forms of figure skating. The free dance has not undergone significant changes over the years and the basis of its scoring remains the quality of the compulsory elements in close dancing positions, the unison the skaters display and their ability to express the character of the musical selection. Sports Equipment Figure skaters use the following athletic equipment: * Custom-made boots made of thick, stiff leather, with extra laces and wide tongues, which provide the ankle with both flexibility and support. * High strength carbon-steel blades with concave grooves along their entire length and teeth in the toe of the blade to allow for pushing off when performing certain types of jumps. * A suit made of stretchable material that does not restrict the skater’s range of motion. The outfit should correspond to the character of the musical selection and reflect the artistic idea of the program. A standard skating rink is 30 by 60 meters in size, with plastic or sliding boards. Figure skaters need the highest quality ice, which is possible with the aid of ice resurfacers. The thickness of the ice over its entire surface cannot vary by over 0. 5 cm. 6. 2 Short Track as it is Short track speed skating is a type of speed skating where the athletes compete on a 111. 12 m oval. At the Olympic Winter Games, Short Track Speed Skating consists of eight medal events. Men and women compete in 500m, 1000m, and 1500m races. There is a 5000m relay for men, and a 3000m relay for women. Short track speed skating is an elimination event in which skaters race in packs and try to outskate and outwit fellow competitors within their heats. The first skater to cross the finish line is the winner, regardless of time Individual competitions begin with 32 skaters and feature heats of four athletes at a time. The first two skaters in each heat to cross the finish line continue on to the next round until only 4 athletes are left to vie for medals. The men’s and women’s relays are two-day competitions consisting of a semi-final and a final. Eight teams of 4 athletes are divided into two heats of four. Every team agrees on the number of laps each athlete should skate. The only exception is the last 2 laps that are covered by the same skater. The top two teams in each semi-final advance to the final. Sports Equipment * The short track blades are very sharp and measure 40-46cm lengthwise. Short track boots lace higher up the ankle than traditional skates and are constructed from customized foot moulds and with heavier materials to help stabilize the foot and ankle around the corners. * Gloves are worn to protect skaters’ hands from blades. * Hard plastic helmets prevent potential head injuries resulting from crashes with competitors, the ice or side walls. * Skin-tight suits mould to the skater’s body to reduce wind resistance. Knee, shin, and sometimes neck guards offer protection from the blades of the skater in front. Speed Skating as it is In speed skating, athletes travel around a 400 m oval rink as fast as possible. Speed skating at the Olympic Games consists of ten individual events: 500m, 1000m, 1500m, 5000m for both men and women, women’s 3000m, men’s 10,000m and Team pursuit for men an d women. Thus 12 sets of Olympic medals are awarded in speed skating. In each event, skaters race in pairs using inner and outer lanes on a standard 400m oval. Athletes change the lanes at every lap to skate the equal distance. All events are skated once, with the exception of the men’s and women’s 500 meters, which are skated twice. The final result is based on the total time taken over the two races. In a team pursuit, men skate 8 laps and women–6. 2 teams composed of 3 skaters participate in each heat, with teams starting from opposite sides of the oval at the same time. Each skater in a team becomes a leader of the group taking all air resistance while his partners skate behind him. The race comes to an end only when the last skater on a team crosses the finish line. Sports Equipment * Skaters use special â€Å"clap skates† whose blade isn’t attached to the boot. These boots are usually made of kangaroo leather. * Skaters wear skin-tight racing suits with hoods to reduce air resistance. 6. . 1 Alpine Skiing as it is The Olympic Alpine competition consists of five events each for women and men. These include Downhill, Slalom, Giant Slalom, Super Giant, and Super Combined. The rules are the same for men and women, but the courses differ. Ten sets of medals altogether are awarded. The downhill (DH) features the longest course and the highest speeds in Alpine skiing (120 km/h). Each skier makes a single run down a course one after another and the fastest time determines the winner. The slalom (SL) is an alpine skiing discipline that involves skiing between poles (or â€Å"gates†) spaced much closer together than in Giant Slalom, Super-G or Downhill, resulting in quicker and shorter turns. Slalom is a two-run event; the skier with the fastest combined adjusted time for the two runs wins. Giant slalom (GS) involves skiing between sets of gates spaced at a greater distance from each other than in slalom but not as great as in Super-G. The number of gates in this event ranges from 56 to 70 for men and 46 to 58 for women. The final result is based on the total time taken over the two different runs. The Super giant slalom (Super-G) incorporates aspects of both downhill and giant slalom racing. It involves skiing between widely spaced gates as in Giant Slalom, but with fewer turns over a longer course and with higher speeds approaching those achieved in Downhill. The Super Combined event includes one Downhill or Super-G run and one Slalom run on a single day. Sports Equipment * Reinforced plastic boots are specific to the competition discipline. Bindings are the link between the boots and the skis. Gloves are made of leather or synthetic material * Ski goggles protect the eyes against weather, glare and the effects of speed on the eyes. * A tight-fitting helmet is designed to protect a skier’s head from injuries. * In the downhill and Super-G, poles are curved to fit around the body to reduce air resistance. Skis are made of various materials (wood, composite fibers) specially adapted to the wear and tear they undergo during a race. Skis in downhill are 30% longer than those used in slalom in order to provide added stability at high speeds. * Skin-tight racing suits are made of materials that minimize air resistance. 2 Cross-Country Skiing as it is At the Olympic Winter Games, the cross-country skiing discipline comprises twelve differ ent events. They include sprint, team sprint, individual start, pursuit, mass start and relay events. The Individual Interval Start Race is the traditional race format, where skiers compete against the clock. The skiers start the race at 30-second intervals in reverse order to their season ranking. This means that the top ranked skier will start last. The winner of the race is the skier with the fastest time. Coaches along the course time their athletes, calling out their rank at specific points of the race. Racers who are overtaken by faster competitors must step aside if ecessary to allow the faster skier to pass. In the Olympic Individual Interval Start Race, men compete over a distance of 15km (in loops of 5km) while women race a ski 10km (in loops of 5km). The Sprint Competition will, after a qualifying round (in individual interval start format), consist of 30 skiers competing in elimination heats. In the elimination heats (quarterfinals and semifinals) the skiers start side by side and ra ce one time around a 1. 3 1. 6km loop. The two fastest skiers in each heat advance to the next round. For the 6th positions in the semi-final heats and for the 5 and 6th positions in the final heat, the next two fastest competitors who are ranked 3rd or 4th (called â€Å"lucky losers†) will advance. Six skiers compete in the medal round for the Olympic medals. The team sprint competition consists of teams of two skiers skiing one at a time, tagging their teammate upon completing a 1. 5 km leg. The two skiers alternate skiing one leg each, for a total of 6 legs (3 legs each). 10 teams qualify for the finals through qualification heats, and start in a modified (arrow shape format) mass start on the first leg. In this race, there are often rapid lead changes and high speed. The Pursuit race is an exciting mass start race where skiers ski the first half of the race using the classic technique (and the necessary equipment), then switch to the free technique (in the stadium) before completing the competition. The clock is running during the equipment exchange, similar to a â€Å"pit stop† in car racing. The first skier to cross the finish line is the Pursuit winner. The skiers are required to change skis at the halfway point, and frequently also change poles. In the Pursuit race, men race 15 km (in loops of 3. 5 km) using each technique (for a total distance of 30km), while women race 7. 5km (in loops of 2. 5 km) for a total distance of 15km. The competition course is usually laid out in such a way that the skiers pass through the stadium several times. Individual Mass Start Races are the longest individual Cross Country races at the Olympic Winter Games. In the Individual Mass Start R aces, men race over a distance of 50km, while women ski a distance of 30km. The long-distance mass start events will line the whole field of skiers in rows of 7 – 11, starting a field of 60 to 80 skiers by a start gun. This particular format can be compared to bicycle racing, where large groups of athletes use strategy and tactics to gain an advantage during the course of the race, and then demonstrate their sprinting abilities at the finish. The employment of short loops allows spectators in the stadium to see the contestants every 10-12 minutes. The first skier to finish is the winner, although it is not unusual to have up to 10 athletes vying for the victory in a photo finish. The Relay format features teams of four skiers from each competing country. The two first skiers on each team must use the classic technique while the last two must use the free technique (usually skiing a different course). Skiers take turns competing, and tag their teammate in an exchange zone at the end of leg of the relay race. The team that completes all four legs of the race first is the winner. In the Relays, men race four 10-km legs each, while women race four 5-km legs. Sports Equipment * Cross-country boots for classic technique are similar in design to running shoes. The boots for free technique are more rigid and have more ankle support than the boots used for classic technique. The bindings secure only the toe of the boot to the ski. * For classic technique, the poles should extend to a standing skier’s armpit. For free technique, the poles are generally longer and stiffer and extend to the chin or mouth of the skier. They are usually made of graphite or fiberglass. * The skis are long and thin, to distribute the weight of the skier and allow the skier to move quickly. Depending on the ski design and purpose, they are customized to fit the skier. * The wax can be of two types: glide wax and kick wax, also known as grip wax. Glide waxes are used to make a ski glide faster. Kick waxes are used to provide a grip on snow when weight is transferred to a ski; they are used in classic technique only. * The suit is made from stretch fabric (lycra) that hugs the body and considerably reduces wind resistance when racing. Nordic Combined as it is Nordic Combined events include a ski jumping competition (1 jump) and a 10 km cross-country skiing race. There are three events in the Olympic program in Nordic Combined: Individual men Normal Hill (HS 105), Team men Large Hill 4 x 5 km and Individual men Large Hill (HS 140). HS stands for Hill Size and refers to the longest safe distance flown by the best athletes on a given hill. The individual events are also known as the Individual Gundersen and encompass one competition jump on either a HS 105 or HS 140 ski jumping hill and a 10 km cross-country ski race. Points are scored for distance and style in ski jumping. The racers with most ski jumping points will start first in the cross-country portion, followed by the next best jumper after a gap which reflects the difference in their jumping scores and so on. This means that the first cross-country skier to cross the finish line is also the winner of the event. This method of competition, also known as the Gundersen method, was introduced in the mid 1980s. The team event is similar to the individual event, but contested by teams of four athletes. Each takes one jump on a HS 140 m hill, with all the jumps counting towards the team total. A difference of forty-five points translates to a one minute advantage in the second event, the 4 x 5 km cross-country relay. As with the Individual events, the Gundersen method is used to determine starting times in the relay. The winner is the team whose final skier crosses the finish line first. Sports Equipment Special boots with high instep allowing skiers to lean forward during flight. * The binding must be mounted parallel to the run-direction. The binding must be placed in such a way that a maximum 57% of the entire ski length is used as the front part. A connection cord that is a part of the binding attaches the ski to the boot and prevents the wobbling of skis during flight. All portions of the ski jumping suit must be made of the same material and must offer certain degree of breathability. Special jumping skis can be up to a maximum length of 146% of the total height of the competitor. Cross-country ski equipment * The rear of the boot is built up to shore up the ankle, which is constantly under pressure in the free technique. * Skis are narrower and lighter than those used in Alpine skiing. They have long, curved ends and rise up slightly in the middle. They can be up to 2 m long. * Bindings secure only the toe of the boot to the ski. * Ski poles are long and straight, often reaching up as high as a competitors chin. * The suit is made from body hugging stretch fabric. * Glide wax is chosen depending on snow and weather conditions. 8. Ski Jumping as it is To date, only men can compete in ski jumping at the Olympic Games. Women’s World Championships have been held since 2009— currently the highest level event for women. Three mens ski jumping events are held at the Olympics: Individual Normal Hill, Individual Large Hill and the Team Event. 3 sets of Olympic medals are awarded in ski jumping. Individual Normal Hill is the only ski jumping event on HS 105m hill (K-95). The longest distance reached is around 105m. There are two jumps (the first round open to 50 who qualified on the day before and the final round limited to the top 30 after the first round). The athlete with the highest total score is declared the winner. Individual Large Hill is contested on HS 140 m hill (K-125). The best jumpers land at around 140 meters. There are two jumps: the first round, open to 50 who qualified on the day before; and the final round, limited to the top 30 after the first round. The athlete with the highest total score is declared the winner. The Team Event runs on HS 140 m hill (K-125). There are four members in each team, and there are two jumps (a first and a final round). All teams start in the first round. In the final round the field is reduced to the eight best teams. The team with the highest total score over the eight jumps is declared the winner. Sports Equipment * Special boots with high instep allowing skiers to lean forward during flight. * The binding must be mounted parallel to the run-direction. The binding must be placed in such a way that a maximum 57% of the entire ski length is used as the front part. * A connection cord that is a part of the binding attaches the ski to the boot and prevents the wobbling of skis during flight. * All portions of the suit must be made of the same material and must offer sufficient breathability. Special jumping skis can be up to a maximum length of 146% of the total height of the competitor. Freestyle as it is There are three events for men and women in the Olympic Freestyle program: moguls, aerials and ski cross. 6 sets of medals are awarded for freestyle events. In Mogul, skiers race down a course over a series of bumps or moguls. Each athlete is required to perform two tricks and jumps. The Olympic format includes a one-run elimination round followed by a one-run final of 16 to 20 skiers. Competitors receiving the highest score for their tricks and jumps in the final round are declared winners. Scores are determined by judges who evaluate the quality of a skier’s tricks, and the quality and difficulty of the jumps. Judges also give points for speed according to a special formula. The Olympic aerial competition consists of a two-jump qualifying stage followed by a two-jump final. The combined scores from the two jumps determine 12 athletes qualified for the final. Scores from the qualification round are not counted in the finals. Competitors are judged on jump takeoff (20%), jump form (50%) and landing (30%). Ski cross consists of several rounds of competition. In the qualifying stage, athletes race down a course approximately 1000 meters long with turns and obstacles. 2 athletes with the best times are then divided into groups of four and compete to determine who proceeds to the next round of competition. The top two competitors in each group then move on to the medal round. Sports Equipment * The standard length of mogul skis is typically 180cm for men and 170cm for women. For aerials, the standard ski length for both men and women is 160cm. Ski cross skis are similar to those used in the Supe r Giant Slalom. * Ski poles are used to aid the skier in accelerating, turning and maintaining balance. In moguls the color of knee pads often contrasts with that of a ski suit in order to draw the judges’ attention to the skier’s expertise. * Ski boots should provide sufficient support to allow an athlete to withstand the force of impact. * The helmet is made of hard plastic, protecting the head and preventing serious head injuries in both aerials and moguls. Snowboard as it is There are six snowboard events in the program of the Olympic Winter Games: mens half-pipe, women’s half-pipe, mens parallel giant slalom and women’s parallel giant slalom, mens Boarder-cross and women’s Boarder-cross. sets of medal are awarded altogether. The half-pipe competition takes place in a bowl-shaped course dug deep into the hill. Using speed gained on the slope, snowboarders come up over the rim of the pipe and perform acrobatic aerial tricks. The object of the half-pipe is to perform difficult tricks with perfect form. The parallel giant slalom features head-to-head matches on the mountain. After the qualification round, a 16-person tournament is established and athletes compete under the knock-out system on two side-by-side courses until there is a winner. The Boarder-cross event is held on a challenging route including jumps, bumps, berms and other obstacles. The heats consist of four riders who start at the same time, with the best two in the finish proceeding to the next round (where the athlete with the best time in the previous round goes first). Finally, the four fastest snowboarders make the final and compete for medals. Sports Equipment * A specially designed flexible board for half-pipe is essential for balance and tricks. * The Alpine board is stiff and narrow, which is ideal for turns and high speed. The Boarder-cross board is designed to allow high speed, combined with a maximum of tolerance and flexibility to avoid mistakes in the jumps and obstacles. * Snowboard footwear is usually soft boots, while boots for alpine snowboarding are firmer. * A hard plastic helmet is compulsory for all snowboard competitors.